2023年9月から1年間、イギリスのダラム大学に交換留学していました。ICUの交換留学制度は非常に充実しており、約30カ国に提携校があります。なぜ私がイギリス、そしてダラム大学を選んだのかは別の記事で詳しく書こうと思いますが、今回は留学中に提出したレポートの内容を紹介します。
このレポートは、「Education in a Global Age」という授業の期末課題として執筆したものです。テーマは、"In a country of your choice, critically discuss whether and to what extent a government’s policy has effectively addressed inequalities related to class, gender, race, ethnicity and/or disability."（ある国の事例を挙げて、政府の政策が階級・ジェンダー・人種・民族・障害に関連する不平等をどの程度効果的に解消しているかを批判的に論じよ。）です。私は「日本における学習支援制度は、経済的不平等の解消に貢献しているのか？」という問いを立て、東京都が行っていた受験生チャレンジ支援貸付事業を中心に考察しました。以下が要約です。
・塾は日本における「影の教育（Shadow Education）」の具体例であり、進学に大きな影響を持つが、費用が高く経済的格差を助長しているという側面がある。
・東京都の「スタディ・アシスト事業」は、経済的に困難な家庭の子どもに無料の学習支援を提供し、「塾に通わなくてもよい社会」を目指す政策。
・しかし、成績向上には一定の効果があったものの、経済格差や社会的流動性の改善には限定的な影響しか見られなかった。
・高所得家庭がアクセスできる質の高い塾や教育資源と比べると、スタディ・アシスト事業のみでは不十分であるのではないか。
・「塾のない社会」の実現は現実的ではなく、学校教育そのものの質を底上げすることがより重要である。
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| ダラム大聖堂はハリー・ポッターの撮影地としても知られています。 |
The Efficacy of the "Study Assist" Initiative: The Case of Juku in Japan
1. Introduction
Luo (2023) discusses the definition of shadow education by introducing three parameters: supplementation, privateness, and academic subject. First, shadow education involves tutoring that addresses subjects already covered in school and has a remedial role in keeping up with the pace of school. Second, shadow education is provided in exchange for remuneration, as opposed to unpaid tutoring by families or community members or special tutoring where teachers answer questions after school. Third, shadow education focuses mainly on academic subjects such as languages, mathematics, and other examination subjects, excluding skills such as music, art, and sport.
This definition might not accurately capture the increasingly complex nature of shadow education. For example, in China, where a ban on cramming schools has been enforced, cramming schools disguised as private tutoring in music and sports, known as the "black market", are rampant (Luo, 2021). The Study Assist introduced in this paper is also an example of shadow education provided without remuneration. Thus, Luo’s definition does not accurately capture the characteristics of contemporary shadow education.
Another definition of shadow education is a complementary form of education and learning outside the official school system, encompassing activities such as tutoring, juku, private lessons, and online learning (Bray 2012). Bray argues that shadow education is aimed at helping students receive additional guidance and learning opportunities beyond the traditional school setting, typically to enhance academic achievements and prepare for exams or future educational endeavours.
Compared to the definition by Luo, Bray could clearly define the variety of shadow education. However, it may not fully suggest the impact of economic factors on the accessibility of shadow education. This can be assessed as a degree of disregard for those who cannot access shadow education for economic or regional reasons. In addition, the definition does not explicitly mention the effectiveness or outcomes of shadow education. It is assumed that it helps improve academic performance, but to varying degrees, some students may need to realise the expected benefits. Indeed, the effectiveness of Study Assist and other Japanese cram schools varies from person to person.
2.2 Juku
Kim (2015) argues that the primary function of juku can be described as follows:
juku specialises in both remedial and anticipatory education for further education,
supporting students who need to catch up with the school curriculum or who wish to
study ahead of the standard curriculum to prepare for entrance exams. Study Assist
focuses solely on the former, which differs from the definition of juku in this context.
2.3 Shadow Education and Juku in Japan
Kim (2015) clearly distinguishes between cram school and shadow education.
Shadow education refers to private out-of-school supplementary educational services,
including juku. Juku constitutes a significant part of shadow education in Japan, but it is
not the only form of it. Shadow education in Japan also includes private tutoring,
correspondence courses, and online learning.
While juku is a form of shadow education, they are unique in providing a wide
range of educational services to children in various levels of schooling. They are located
outside of official monitoring. Hence, they are frequently involved in discussions about
social class and differences in students' academic abilities. Therefore, while juku is a
significant part of shadow education in Japan, it is not synonymous with it. Shadow
education encompasses a broader range of private educational services, while juku is a
specific type of out-of-school supplementary education providing various services to
students.
2.4 Inequalities
According to Zhang (2020), "inequalities" typically refer to disparities in access
to resources, opportunities, and outcomes among individuals or groups within a society.
In shadow education, "inequalities" may refer to unequal access to supplementary
educational support, where groups or individuals have more significant opportunities to
engage in private tutoring or additional educational activities than others.
According to Bourdieu, cultural capital encompasses the knowledge, skills and education acquired by individuals, which can be used to gain an advantage in society (Christopher, 2023). In the context of juku, students from high Socio-economic status (SES) families have greater access to cultural capital, including institutional, cultural capital acquired through an elite educational background and embodied cultural capital manifested as habitus. Specifically, they can attend juku, which are more financially expensive and higher achieving, which will likely increase their advantage in further education and the labour market, resulting in economic success.
3.2 Redistribution of resources
As an example of resource redistribution in shadow education, Zhang (2020)
refers to the efforts of juku to support low-income families in Cambodia. There, they
report that they charge discounted rates and provide free tutoring to some low-income
families. This can be described as a redistribution of resources in shadow education and
indicates the provision of educational assistance to those who do not have the financial
means to access such resources.
The difference between the Cambodian system and that described by Zhang and
the Tokyo Metropolitan Government is that private companies provide free education to
the poor in Cambodia. In contrast, in Tokyo, Study Assist is provided within schools.
With this initiative, they aim to realise a 'juku-free society'.
4. Difficulties in achieving a society without cram schools
The "Study Assist" system aims to achieve a "cram school-free society" by
introducing cram school programs within schools to realise a society where additional
tuition fees for attending cram schools are unnecessary. However, achieving a society
without cram schools is considered challenging. In the competitive neoliberal society,
people are willing to pay money to strive for higher goals. In fact, in China, in July
2021, a system known as the "cram school prohibition order" was implemented (China
daily, 2021). This order prohibits profit-driven cram schools from offering
supplementary lessons in elementary and middle school subjects. It is an initiative to
eliminate cram schools.
“Study Assist” can be described as a similar approach, focusing on achieving a
‘juku-free-country’. However, the author believes that it is unlikely to occur. In China,
even two years after the enforcement of the cram school prohibition order, it has been
revealed that a "black market" is taking place, often disguised as online supplementary
classes, or tutoring in music, painting, and sports (Luo, 2021). Luo also revealed that
due to the nature of these private lessons, the costs have become exclusively high
compared to traditional cram schools. However, parents find themselves compelled to
pay for private tutors, resulting in the ironic consequence that the Ministry of Education's directive to abolish cram schools for "reducing the burden on families"
squeezes household budgets.
Thus, even attempts to eliminate cram schools may not deter individuals in a
competitive society from willingly paying for educational opportunities to pursue higher
achievements. Therefore, realising a society without cram schools remains challenging
in Japan.
5. The Study Assistance schemes' failure to lead to a reduction in economic inequalities
While the Study Assist program has shown some success in improving academic
proficiency among motivated junior high school students facing learning challenges, a
deeper analysis reveals potential limitations in its impact on reducing economic
inequalities. This discussion acknowledges the program's positive outcomes but
emphasises the need for further research to comprehensively assess its effectiveness in
promoting social mobility.
The Tachikawa Board of Education aimed to support third-year junior high
school pupils that are very motivated but are having difficulty learning. The program
focused on English and Mathematics from September to January. Academic proficiency
test results indicate a noteworthy improvement, with English scores increasing by +6.9
and Mathematics scores by +16.6. However, it is crucial to note that the program
targeted students with initially low academic proficiency. Even though students' scores
increased, their initial score was 43.5 for Mathematics and 33 for English.
A participant survey highlights mixed sentiments among students, with a
decrease in those expecting more from the program on the final day compared to the
initial day. While 93.0% of students reported successful on the final day, the declining
percentage of those expecting more suggests a need for improvement in enhancing
students' study motivation. This calls for a more consistent approach to addressing
individual expectations throughout the program.
Analysing the data above, it can be concluded that Study Assist has positively
impacted students' academic achievement but has not contributed much to reducing
social mobility or economic inequality. Bourdieu states that pupils from families with
higher SES have better access to cultural capital than those with lower SES. It may be
challenging to catch up with students from higher SES families who have access to
more expensive, higher-level educational resources despite using the Study Assist
system. The study also touches on the redistribution of resources, acknowledging that
Study Assist is a form of wealth redistribution. However, for the non-wealthy children who use Study Assist to improve their social class, Study Assist may need to provide
educational support comparable to juku's. The current focus on improving basic
academic skills may not be enough to bridge the gap in educational opportunities due to
differences in socio-economic background.
In summary, Study Assist has shown positive results in improving academic
skills but has yet to reduce economic inequalities. The programme's focus on improving
foundational skills may need to be complemented. The programme's focus on
foundational skills improvement may need to be complemented by measures aligning
with the educational advantages of high SES families.
6. Conclusion
This paper has focused on the Study Assist Programme to answer the question
of how the government's policy has effectively addressed inequalities related to class. It
considers how this system contributes to reducing economic disparities in shadow
education in Japan. First, by defining shadow education and juku in Japan, the
complexity of the juku industry specific to Japan is clarified. Then, using theories such
as Bourdieu's Cultural Capital, this paper examined the impact of economic status on
educational inequality. It was concluded that the Study Assist programme actively
implemented by Tachikawa City has failed to contribute to reducing economic
inequalities.
The writer believes that competition and the disparities that result from
competition are inherent in society. However, allowing children to be educated due to
educational disparities would be an endorsement of inequality at birth. It is essential to
create a society where children who want to study can try, regardless of their family
environment. However, is a society without juku necessary to realise such a society?
Even if Japan try to eliminate juku, new forms of 'juku-like' things will emerge, as
discussed, and if there is competition, there will always be people who will invest
money in them. Study assistance is one option, then. However, the priority should be to
raise the level of in-school education itself to provide essential educational support for
the poor and ensure that all children can enjoy the same level of education through
government investment.
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